Establishing communal area conservancies

Legislation devolving rights over wildlife to communal area residents was approved by the Namibian Parliament in 1996.  This enables people living on state land to establish legally gazetted conservancies, giving them some rights over resources, in particular, wildlife. However, communities are not automatically awarded the right to register as a conservancy. They must first fulfil a number of preconditions.  

Initially, it is important to establish whether a conservancy in a specific area will be ecologically, socially and economically viable. If it is, then communities work towards legal requirements (see box). Communities that meet the conditions for registration receive limited rights of ownership over certain animal species and use rights over others. Legally formed conservancies can also apply for hunting and tourism rights within the conservancy.

Many NACSO partners work directly with communities to support conservancy development and management. For example, IRDNC, a field-based agency, has provided ongoing support and on-the-job capacity building to local communities over the last 17 years. The Nyae Nyae Development Trust, RISE and NDT also provide field-based support and training.  

In February 1998, Nyae Nyae Conservancy became the first Communal Area Conservancy to be gazetted.  By the end of  2001, 15 communal area conservancies were legally recognised, while more than 30 were at various stages of establishment.  

Some important aspects and activities of conservancies

Conservancy committees

Conservancies are managed by conservancy committees. These bodies are composed of democratically elected members and are responsible for institutional management: planning, overseeing implementation of plans, personnel management, financial management, reporting, networking and communication. Conservancy committees are also engaged in the development of land, natural resource and tourism management plans to provide for better management and community-guided implementation in their areas.

Conservancy game guards and resource monitors

Conservancy game guards, also referred to as community game guards, community rangers or environmental shepherds, are responsible for day-to-day wildlife monitoring and also serve as an effective communications link between the conservancy committee and the broader membership of the conservancy. Community game guards deter and monitor illegal hunting, and collect and report information on the status of wildlife populations. They also support a range of natural resource management activities. Conservancy resource monitors, all of whom are women, monitor the use of resources whose primary users are women (for example, basketry materials and veld foods).

Mapping

One of the prerequisites for the establishment of a conservancy is a clearly defined boundary. Mapping this often requires months or even years of negotiations with neighbouring communities. Baseline maps are also needed for land-use planning and monitoring natural resources, and maps are a useful tool for capturing conservancy land- use planning (for example, zonation maps). Participatory mapping leads to stronger ownership of conservancies and builds bridges between communities, support organisations and technical advisors.

Inventories and monitoring

Land-use planning and natural resource management rely on information about an area’s natural resources. Inventories and monitoring exercises are therefore essential tools for conservancies. While inventories to date have largely been compiled from existing information, monitoring in conservancies is providing new and useful data. Some of the wildlife monitoring systems that have been established in selected conservancies include: the event book system in Caprivi, foot transect counts in West Caprivi, vehicle counts in Kunene, cybertracker foot counts in East Caprivi, and fixed route foot patrols in Nyae Nyae and Caprivi. Monitoring is a key activity conducted by community game guards. A wildlife-monitoring database that captures all data and serves all communities has been developed.

Natural Resource Management activities

Conservancies are committed to the active and wise management of resources on their land, and in particular (according to legislation) wildlife. Many different strategies are being explored and have been employed. In some areas, game cropping has taken place, providing benefits for communities in the form of meat and income from sale of skins, and providing an incentive for and example of sustainable use of wildlife. An important non-cash benefit received by several communal area conservancies has been game reintroduced into their areas to restock populations often depleted by years of hunting and changing land-use practices. Game has been donated by the MET and commercial farmers. Game translocations allow wildlife populations to become re-established and may, in some areas, allow for sustainable use through commercial hunting or game cropping.

Quarterly planning and evaluation

Four times a year, conservancies and support organisations engage in an evaluation and planning exercise. This offers an essential opportunity to reflect on processes and progress and to plan for or adjust natural resource management strategies. It also provides a valuable means of collecting and sharing information and lessons learned from different areas, and encourages conservancies to learn from each other.

Dealing with ‘problem animals’

While tourists travel from afar to view animals, especially elephants and lions, rural residents and farmers often bear the costs of destruction of their livestock and property by these and other animals. In some cases, people are killed by animals such as elephants, hippopotamuses, lions and crocodiles – all of which are protected under conservation laws.  

In most southern African countries, including Namibia , people have asked Government to compensate them for their losses. Few countries have managed to address this problem due to difficulties in determining exact costs, and because there is not enough money available to do so.  

People and wildlife continue to compete for resources. Ironically, as game populations recover and animals such as elephants reclaim their old distribution areas, conflict increases.  While the newly established Game Products Trust Fund (see box) offers a partial solution to this problem, it is imperative to continue to find new ways of dealing with old problems.  

Now more than ever, it is vital to seek effective and innovative approaches to dealing with ‘problem’ animals. Research into animal movements, habitat preferences, water needs and grazing is required to better understand animal behaviour. It will then become easier to minimise conflict through, for example, the establishment of separate waterholes for wildlife and livestock.  

Working with natural resources – capacity building, extension and education

Managing natural resources in rural areas demands considerable skills and effort. Capacity building, extension work, environmental awareness and education are all important components of the conservation and natural resource management aspects of the programme. A broad spectrum of capacity development is needed if CBNRM and conservancies are to function effectively.  

Capacity development and training programmes cover topics as diverse as conservancy formation, wildlife monitoring, institutional and financial management, benefits sharing, management and leadership, report writing, strategic planning and evaluation, and the roles and responsibilities of conservancy committees. Much of the work of NACSO partners concentrates on capacity building and training. The Rössing Foundation has established a CBNRM Training Unit, to focus specifically on developing, presenting and sharing training workshops to support the CBNRM programme. Training in wildlife management is provided through a partnership between the MET, WWF and the NNF. Innovative methods and materials are developed and tested through pilot work before broader application, while valuable exchanges of information, resource materials and ideas have been affected with CBNRM programmes run in Namibia ’s SADC neighbours.  

A RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME…

Namibia ’s CBNRM programme is increasingly regarded as a major rural development strategy that  helps to nurture an alternative development vision.  

Conservancies serve as units for natural resource management and land-use schemes that supplement traditional farming. This helps to diversify people’s livelihoods, and broaden their resource dependence as a means of coping with drought (a common and natural occurrence in Namibia ). The importance and potential of CBNRM as a rural development strategy has been broadly recognised, and it has been woven into the second Namibian National Development Plan.  

Natural resources can offer alternative sources of income to rural people. However, if their use is unmanaged, such options will be severely reduced in future years. Thatching grass already provides communities in Kavango and Caprivi regions with supplementary income. While there are ready markets for products such as marula oil and Devil’s Claw or harpargo tea, the challenge is to find sustainable ways in which to harvest these indigenous products.  

Several communities have received non-cash contributions in the form of game translocated to their areas from commercial area conservancies and national parks. If these animals are carefully managed, sale of live game could potentially contribute to rural residents’ incomes. However, the greatest potential for resource-based income generation in rural areas lies in the realm of tourism.  

Benefiting from tourism

Tourism is the fastest growing industry in Namibia , and is predicted to become one of the biggest contributors to Namibia ’s GDP within a few years. Namibia ’s unique scenery, people and wild animals are important draw cards for tourists. Traditionally, Etosha National Park and the dunes at Sossusvlei have served to attract international tourists. Communal areas such as the Kunene Region are fast becoming another attraction.  

People in areas where tourism is taking place often do not benefit from it, and, in some instances, are exploited. They are not always aware of the value of their crafts and cultural artefacts, or of the natural resources in their areas.  

Community-based tourism initiatives and enterprises have become a key element of CBNRM. They provide rural people with: 

• income and employment 

• an impetus for conservation

• an empowerment mechanism, as communities participate in tourism decision-making processes and operations

• skills and capacity development  

In 2000, N$1.5 million (out of total of N$3.5m generated through CBNRM activities) was derived from Community-based tourism. This does not include an additional N$ 375 000 of revenue from joint venture lodges.  

Tourism is the largest income generator for communal area conservancies. Community-based tourism products include campsites, rest camps, traditional villages, tour guide associations and craft outlets.  The value of added activities and services such as jobs for lodge staff, managers, guides, waiters, cooks, washing, etc. should not be underestimated, and can make important contributions to rural household economies. The Namibian Community-based Tourism Association, NACOBTA, supports 45 members of which 26 are currently operational. A vital part of their work consists of supporting communities to establish whether tourism in their area is a viable income-generating option, and assisting in surveys, planning and market development.  

Building rural entrepreneurship

Many different tourism ‘spin-off’ businesses can and have been established. People produce vegetables for lodges and rest camps, provide firewood to campers, and offer guided walks, mokoro rides and donkey-cart rides.  In Kunene Region, a resident who witnessed weary tourists battling to repair tyres created a tyre repair centre and refreshment kiosk. Community-based tourism offers and promotes opportunities for rural entrepreneurship.  

Joint ventures

Joint ventures with private sector partners can provide a regular source of income for communities. They allow for the development of tourism infrastructure that a community would sometimes find difficult to finance, and bring tourism skills, information and marketing into communities. There are various ways in which these joint ventures can be structured and provide benefits, all of which need to be carefully and clearly negotiated before joint ventures can be formally embarked upon. Some of the options include:  

• direct revenue sharing (by percentage of turnover, usually combined with a flat fee per year)

• the payment of bed night levies

• payment for game for hunting

• site (PTO) rental fees

• the provision of training and employment for local inhabitants

• secondary business opportunities  

It is expected that joint-venture tourism income will increase dramatically in future years, and by 2005 it is likely to become the single largest source of CBNRM-related income in Namibia .  

Traditional Villages

Community or conservancy-owned and operated ‘traditional villages’ attract tourists and add cultural tourism to the eco-tourism already on offer. Apart from providing employment and revenue, they are conserving parts of Namibia ’s cultural heritage and ensure that cultural practices are passed on to future generations.  

Community campsites

There are a number of community-owned and operated campsites that generate income and provide part time employment for those communities that operate them.  

Safari and trophy hunting

Conservancies’ user rights over wildlife mean they are able to benefit from safari and trophy hunting operations. Conservancies that contain an abundance of wildlife can generally begin earning income from trophy hunting shortly after registration.  

Sale of crafts

Production and sale of crafts supplements income for many rural area residents, particularly women. Crafts are mainly manufactured from natural resources, and these need to be used sustainably if the industry is to continue to grow. NACSO partners provide support in terms of craft development, quality improvement and marketing. Alternative materials for craft making are also explored.  

Supporting Community- Based Tourism

Successful community- based tourism depends on awareness raising and capacity building. Many new skills are needed if a community is to establish, run and manage tourism enterprises. Joint venture negotiations often require specialised legal and financial expertise. NACSO partners are striving to increase their capacity to provide necessary support. Almost all partners provide support for community-based tourism initiatives in the areas where they work, with NACOBTA serving as the lead agency. Its key functions include business and enterprise support and advice; small grants and product development; tourism planning; training in tourism and business skills; marketing and promotion of community based tourism including a booking and information system; and advocacy and lobbying of government and the private sector.  

Financial benefits to date

Since the start of Namibia ’s CBNRM programme, income and benefits earned by communities (mainly through joint ventures and trophy hunting) have continuously increased.

 In 2000, N$ 3 411 260 was earned in total. Of this total:  

46% came from community-owned tourism enterprises

23% came from game donations to conservancies (non-cash benefit)

12% came from trophy hunting

11% came from joint venture tourism (Damaraland Camp)

3% came from sale of crafts

1% each (approximately) came from cultural tourism, game meat distribution, thatching grass sales, and interest earned from conservancy funds in commercial banks.  

By 2005 it is estimated that total CBNRM related income in Namibia would reach N$ 10 million.  

 AN EMPOWERMENT AND CAPACITY-BUILDING PROGRAMME…

Effective natural resource management cannot occur in a social vacuum. Because of this, Namibia ’s CBNRM programme works towards rural empowerment through: 

• increasing capacity in decision making, problem solving, and conflict resolution

• strengthening links between communities, traditional authorities, local and national government

• providing information and skills that can create income and develop local infrastructure

Democracy, governance and rural empowerment

Rural conservancies are governed by a representative and elected management committee according to a member-generated constitution. About one in four committee members are women, and traditional authorities are usually represented on committees. Some major ways in which conservancies have contributed to rural empowerment are:

• community decision-making processes have been strengthened

• community leaders are held accountable for their actions, and transparent leadership is encouraged

• there is increased participation by women in decision making processes

• conservancies provide communities with an increased ability to control land-use within their areas, and this helps to prevent economic exploitation

• conservancies provide poor and marginalised communities with an empowerment mechanism that enables them to begin to take control of their own lives.

• people have developed improved self-confidence and the sophistication to manage and benefit from their own natural resources and plan their own livelihoods

CBNRM and Gender

NACSO partners have placed a special emphasis on building gender equity into CBNRM programmes. This includes ensuring that women have a voice in any decision-making processes, stand for election on to committees, and that they benefit from capacity development and training.  

The number of women in conservancy committees has grown steadily since the beginning of the CBNRM programme. While both Salambala and Nyae Nyae Conservancies began with all male conservancy committees, they have both amended these committees to include women. In Torra Conservancy, women make up one third of the committee, while in the emerging Uukwaluudi Conservancy, half of the committee consists of female members and it is led by a female chair.  

Recognising that conservancy game guards did not represent women, many conservancies have employed female Conservancy Resource Monitors. They monitor the use of non-wildlife resources (such as palm for basketry, thatching grass and veld foods), disseminate information to women, and channel women’s views to decision-makers through their report backs. Communities have generally been supportive of this process, and over time have come to value the diversity of perspectives in decision-making processes.  

Building on achievements towards our vision of the future

The CBNRM programme is still in its early stages. Much focused work remains to be done in areas that include:  

• policies and legislation (enabling CBNRM)

• integrated natural resource management

• capacity and skills development

• institutional development - both for CBNRM implementers and support organisations

• the development of a conservation ethic

• problem animal control

• participatory monitoring and evaluation

• research

• documenting lessons learned

• joint ventures and links with the private sector

• distribution and use of benefits earned by communities engaged in CBNRM processes

• business management skills  

CBNRM needs to be integrated into all levels of local, regional and national planning. Namibia ’s experiences have and will continue to contribute to similar programmes within the SADC region.

 Beyond conservancies

Communal area conservancies have served as a flagship for CBNRM in Namibia , but are only one example of how rural development based upon sustainable natural resource management can occur. In the future increased emphasis will be placed on exploring and implementing other models. New approaches are needed towards parks and their neighbours  (for example, work is currently underway in and around Bwabwata National Park ), while the Northern Namibian Environmental Programme has already facilitated the development of a possible alternative model for rural resource use and management. Such explorations are in addition to and not in place of ongoing support for conservancies. The National CBNRM Programme aims to collaborate with other natural resource management sectors such as forestry, fisheries, water and land.  

Institutional Development: building greater support for CBNRM

As NACSO’s membership and capacity grows, it aims to provide increased support for all aspects of CBNRM. Government’s decentralisation policy aims at devolving rights and responsibilities to regional and local level government, and CBNRM will need a strong voice to ensure an enabling institutional setting. The establishment of an umbrella organisation for communal area conservancies, currently under discussion, should provide NACSO with a strong grassroots partner with a broad rural constituency.  

Contributing to regional conservation

Conservancies and Namibia ’s CBNRM Programme contribute to national, regional and international conservation efforts. Several Trans-Border Natural Resource Management (TBNRM) programmes rely on contributions from Namibia and its rural communities. Amongst these are the Every River Project (Kavango and neighbouring countries), and The Four Corners Project (involving Namibia , Botswana , Zimbabwe and Zambia ).