Scientific Services

Etosha National Park – or the ‘great white place’ – is Namibia’s flagship national park. Proclaimed in 1907 in a bid to stop uncontrolled hunting, Etosha has seen its boundaries change over the year, until today the park measures about one fifth of the original size.  The Etosha National Park is still one of the largest and most important protected areas in the world. Stretching more than 350 km from east to west and covering an area of 22 270 square kilometres, the park has 114 mammal species - several of which are rare and endangered - 380 bird species, 110 reptile species, 16 amphibians and one fish species. It also has 16 main vegetation zones, and is the only place where dwarf saline shrub savanna vegetation is found in Namibia.

A permanent Research Section under the Director of Nature Conservation and Tourism was created in Etosha in 1965.  Dr. R. Ebedes was the first wildlife veterinarian station there, along with ecologists Ken Tinley and Eugene Joubert.

The Etosha Ecological Institute (EEI) was formally opened on 1 April 1974, heralding an era of adaptive management based on scientifically conducted research.

Whereas previous management of Etosha was reactive and largely laissez faire, with the establishment and staffing of the EEI, the policy became one of pro actively intervening to translocate, cull, burn, and close or rotate artificial waterholes. In 1974 Hugh Berry became biologist until 1988, when Malan Lindeque (1988-94) succeeded him. Intensive management-related research ensued in this period, and a classification of the vegetation (le Roux 1980), behavioural and eco-physiological studies on wildebeest (Berry 1980), population dynamics of elephants (Lindeque 1988), contraception, reproduction and demography of lions (Orford et al. 1988) were among the major topics investigated.

In the veterinary field, studies yielded progress in understanding anthrax (Turnbull et al. 1989). The severe drought which began in 1980 necessitated the capture, sale and culling of 2 235 Hartmann's zebra and the capture of 450 Burchell's zebra in western Etosha (Berry 1984), making it the largest single operation of its kind ever launched in southern Africa. In two separate operations related to this drought a total of 525 elephants were culled in western Etosha (Lindeque 1988).

 
To view the abstracts of the work presented by delegates to the Etosha Centennial Symposium, click here.

EEI research and monitoring projects

RESEARCH PROGRAMMES IN ETOSHA

The following is a list of research topics currently being investigated in the Etosha National Park:

To conduct a study on modelling patterns of vegetation change around watering points in Etosha National Park – a collaborative project between the EEI and the Department of Ecological Modelling, Leipzig, initiated in 2004. 
An important management intervention in protected areas is the provision of artificial water. However, water provision can have adverse consequences for plants and animals over the long-term. In this particular study, the impact of elephants on woody vegetation in the vicinity of watering points was assessed by means of a process-based simulation model, which integrated empirical data and expert knowledge. This model was able to reproduce observed dry season elephant distributions around watering points. Morphometric measurements of woody plants are taken in permanent vegetation plots around an artificial water point, Charachas. These measurements are done annually, and the results are used to improve the parameterisation of the simulation model. One of the products is to assess the effectivity of such models in predicting the influence of interventions in semi-arid ecosystems.  A total of 15 permanently marked plots were monitored on since 2004. The initial results indicate that the impact of elephants is limited to a radius of approximately 1 km.

 
The data on this project was presented at the Etosha Centennial Symposium, which was held at Mokuti on the 28th till 30th of June 2007.

Research on an environmentally maintained episodic disease: anthrax in Etosha – a collaborative project between the EEI and University of California, Berkley, Principal Investigator: Prof. W. Getz.
Anthrax is an endemic disease to Etosha and the Etosha Management Plan states that research and monitoring on anthrax is a priority for the Park. The Etosha Ecological Institute has been monitoring the incidence of anthrax on the ungulate populations for 40 years. This data is used in conjunction with the latest advances in immunology, genetics and modeling techniques to improve our understanding of the ecological effect of anthrax on ungulate populations. This research project is presently the most comprehensive of its kind in Africa and will run continuously for a period of four years.  The project is also making a long-term contribution to building capacity with Namibian students, as several Namibian working with this project are doing their masters at UNAM.

To study the interactions between Gastrointestinal parasites and Anthrax infections in ungulates at Etosha National Park in Namibia - a collaborative project between the EEI and the University of California, Berkeley, initiatied in 2005.
The objectives of this study are to characterise patterns of gastrointestinal parasitism within the ungulate assemblage and then see if there is evidence for individuals/species with high parasitism having increased anthrax mortality.  This research was piloted July-September 2005 and then the full research began in February 2006.  Since that time, over 2200 faecal samples have been examined for the diversity and abundance of GI parasites from 13 different ungulate species.  There is evidence that the species with the most anthrax mortality also have high rates of parasitism and that the peak months of parasitism coincide with the peak months of anthrax infection (March and April), but individual-level results from anthrax mortalities will be required to convincingly make the link.  In addition the coinfection study, Turner has examined how parasitism in zebra and springbok varies across Etosha’s rainfall and host density gradient.  Sampling in Okaukuejo, Namutoni and Otjovasandu has revealed very interesting patterns of parasitism in zebra, where surprisingly, animals have higher parasite counts in western Etosha, which has lower rainfall and fewer animals than the other areas.  Research on these projects will continue through 2007. Turner is presently writing up all existing data on the project as well finalising the fieldwork.

Integrating elephant population dynamics, demography and anthrax in north-western Namibia – Etosha Ecological Institute, Principal Investigator: J.W. Kilian.
Elephants are megaherbivores and as a result have large and significant impacts on the Etosha ecosystem. Determining long-term trends in the population size is one aspect of monitoring. To determine the potential productivity and factors limiting elephant population size, the most effective way is to determine their demography (sex and age structure) through specific aerial surveillance methods (aerial photogrammetry). This is a rapid method that can be used effectively over large areas and for different populations. The repeated application of this method during the same season can provide vital data such as elephant survival and mortality, which can be applied to make informed management decisions. Up to date, the age structures of elephants have been assessed for eastern and central Etosha. This assessment will continue to include western Etosha and the Kunene population.

To conduct a study on Namibia’s blue cranes – a collaborative project between the EEI and the Namibia Blue Crane Project, Principal Investigator, Dr. A. Scott.
The Blue Crane is rated as globally Vulnerable, and Critically Endangered in Namibia. The isolation of the small subpopulation and its survival in an arid, predator-rich environment within Etosha and the Lake Oponono wetlands to the north pose a conservation enigma. In 1992, the Namibian population of Blue Cranes was estimated at 80 with an apparent decline to 60 in 1994. The Namibia Blue Crane Project was initiated in March 2006.  Using aerial surveys, ringing and resighting information, along with the fitting of radio telemetry to two birds, data on the population, movement and reproduction of the Blue Crane is gathered.  These findings are to be used as a basis for compiling a species management plans for Blue Cranes in Namibia.

To determine the population density of spotted hyena in Etosha – a collaborative project between the EEI and University of Graz, Austria, Principal Investigator: Dr M. Trinkel.
The hyena population in Etosha is presently studied to provide an estimate of numbers as well as to assess its viability in Etosha. This project will be completed over a period of 3 years and will provide an estimate of hyena densities across the entire Etosha. The method used is through using call-up stations at night. Additionally, the densities of lions will be assessed because they are also attracted by the call-ups. This project will provide data that could aid addressing the predator-livestock conflict on the boundaries of Etosha.

Etosha Pan: a dessicated paleo-lake or wind-deflated landform? A collaborative project between the EEI and the University of Namibia, Principal Investigator: Dr. M. Hipondoka.
The Etosha Pan covers an area of 4,750 square km. The origin of the pan and the climatic regime under which it formed is still intensely debated. This study was initiated to investigate the forces that shaped its development and evolution.

Molecular genetic characterisation of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in Etosha National Park - a collaborative project between the EEI and the University of California, Berkeley, initiated in 2005.
The objective of this study is to characterise the genetic diversity of anthrax isolates in Etosha National Park. There are seven genotypes of anthrax in Namibia, but the amount of genetic variation in Etosha is unknown. The differences in timing of anthrax infection between elephants and the plains ungulates may be related to the occurrence of multiple strains of anthrax. Between December 2005 and June 2006, 103 samples were collected from carcasses for the presence of anthrax. In total, 34 isolates were cultured from these samples. Additionally, 200 blood smears from the 1980’s were retrieved and from the Etosha archives. These were sorted and represent about 70 animals that tested positive for anthrax. The laboratory in Arizona is able to extract DNA from the fixed slides. The isolates and duplicates of the blood smears were shipped to the Keim laboratory in Arizona , USA, for genetic analyses. One of the main products of this study is to improve our understanding of anthrax dynamics in Etosha, as well as providing a sound basis for dealing with the human-wildlife and livestock interface between protected areas and their surroundings.

Assessing the possible occurrence of Babesia bicornis and Theileria bicornis in black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) in Etosha National Park - a collaborative project between the EEI and the Department of Veterinary Tropical diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria.
The objective of this study is to assess the presence of selected blood parasites in Etosha National Park and the Kunene region. Babesia spp and Theleria spp are blood parasites that are tick-transmitted. Babesia-related mortalities have been reported in various black rhinoceros populations in Africa. Mortality due to Babesia may be triggered by stress factors, since in most cases animals died soon after capture. Blood samples from rhinos were collected during MET capture and marking operations. Applying a molecular technique, e.g. DNA sequencing, the 29 blood samples from Etosha and 22 blood samples from the Kunene region were negative. The results of this project can be applied in setting protocols for the translocation of rhinoceros in Namibia. A publication of the work is presently in progress and is expected to be completes before the end of 2007.

Assessing rhinoceros population trends and demography in Etosha National Park - a collaborative project between the EEI and Namibian Rhino Co-Ordinator, DSS
The rhinoceros population in Etosha National Park is an extremely important population due to its large size and the fact that it serves as a source population to supplement populations elsewhere in Namibia. The importance of obtaining a precise estimate of population size and demography variables is recognised. A method to count rhinoceros by means of stratified blocks of 16 km² areas was developed for Etosha. This method commenced in 2002 and is carried out annually. Additionally to an estimate, grouping all calves seen into 4 age class categories also assesses the demography of the rhinoceros population. The planning and analyses of the counts are done with a custom-designed spreadsheet package. Ratio and matrix methods are then applied to predict the growth rate of the population. The spatial and trend data are used to prioritise our strategy for translocating rhino from Etosha. 

A population matrix model has been developed to assess the influence of mortality and fecundity patterns on the population trend and is being refined as new data become available. The demographic data was presented at the Etosha Centennial Symposium held at Mokuti from the 28th till the 30th of June 2007.

Determining the age structure of selected ungulates in Etosha National Park – Etosha Ecological Institute
Run through the EEI since 1990, this long-term project aims to assess and interpret the variability in the age structures of springbok, zebra, wildebeest and gemsbok. Ground counts are done bi-annually along set routes in western and eastern Etosha. Estimates of numbers, sex and age structures of the 4 species are collected.  The structural data is analysed and interpreted in the context of limiting and/or regulating factors like rainfall, predation and disease. The analyses of this long term data set is linked to the Project in which emphasis is placed on the interactions between gastrointestinal parasites and anthrax infections in the plains ungulates of Etosha.
The initial results indicate that springbok, wildebeest and zebra respond differently to rainfall and NDVI patterns.  The data was presented at the Etosha Centennial Symposium held at Mokuti from the 28th June till the 30th.

Assessment of trends in elephant populations in Namibia – Etosha Ecological Institute
The data analysis of the trends in several elephant populations in Namibia is a project of the EEI.  Elephants are distributed across Namibia from the edge of their range in the west to the core of their range in the east. This distribution occurs along a steep rainfall gradient increasing from west to east. The main aim of this paper is to collate all count and estimate data for elephants in western Namibia, Etosha, Khaudum, west and eastern Caprivi. Equilibrium and non-equilibrium models will be fitted to the time series of the respective populations to illustrate stability or non-stability. The trends in the different elephant populations will be interpreted in the context of elephant impact and conflict.
The data was presented at the Etosha Centennial Symposium held at Mokuti from the 28th June till the 30th.

Disease status of lions in Etosha National Park – a collaborative project between EEI, DSS, DPWM, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Pretoria, and Dr. Mark Jago, MET’s Game Capture veterinarian.
Feline immunodefiency virus (FIV) is a lentivirus that infects both wild and domestic feline species. Lions in eastern and southern Africa have the highest prevalence of FIV infection of any wild feline with nearly 100% of adults infected in several areas. The lion population in Etosha is regarded as FIV free, but this serological survey was conducted in 1993 with reagents that were more suited to domesticated cats. The risk factor of FIV to free-ranging felids is a controversial subject and a serosurvey on lions in Etosha may provide valuable information, especially when Distemper and Tuberculosis are included. The main objectives of this project are to initially conduct a serological survey on FIV, Distemper and Tuberculosis in lions in a selected area in Etosha, and to provide training to staff. The extension of this project will include the assessment of demographic parameters in different areas in Etosha and refine methods for lion population estimation.

The initial results indicated that all lions in Etosha are FIV free, which emphasises the National and International importance of this population. It is important to reassess the status of the Feline Infectious Virus in Etosha as they could become infected due to contact with infected domestic cats. Up to date, 22 lions in Etosha were tested for the virus. All the lions were negative. This project is continuing to get a larger sample. Two of the lions tested were positive for distemper, which is indicative that they came into contact with infected dogs when moving out of Etosha. This issue is of importance when considering linking Etosha to the conservation and communal areas in the north-west of Namibia.  

Aerial surveillance of elephant age structures and mortalities in the Etosha National Park – a collaborative project between the EEI and Wilderness Safaris Wildlife Trust.
 This proposed project to commence in November 2006 is an initiative between DSS as well as DPWM (ENP). The objectives of this project are to determine the age structure of elephant breeding herds and monitor elephant mortalities throughout Etosha. Aerial photogrammetry will be applied in Etosha through systematic aerial transect surveys on bi-monthly intervals. All herds located during these flights will be photographed and ages allocated to individual elephants.  Additional to the assessment of numerical trends in the Etosha elephant population, the determination of age-structure on a bi-monthly interval may be used as an indicator of the growth rate of the population as well as calculating seasonal recruitment and age-specific mortality. Coupled with the regular detection of elephant carcasses, this information may be used to infer factors regulating the elephant population in Etosha. All the data will feed into the National MIKE program.

To conduct research on factors shaping the movement patterns of vultures in Etosha National Park – a collaborative project between the EEI and the University of Jerusalem, Principal Investigator: O. Spiegel
The goal of this research project is to describe the movement pattern of white-backed (WBV) and Lappet-faced (LFV) vultures, to explore factors shaping this pattern and to evaluate vultures' potential role in dispersing Anthrax spores. Satellite transmitters were fitted to 9 vultures and their movement patterns tracked over Etosha. This data will provide crucial information on the role that vultures play as scavengers in the ecology of Etosha.

Associations of black rhino at waterholes in Etosha National Park – Etosha Ecological Institute, Principal Investigator: J.W. Kilian, in association with P. du Preez, DSS.
The rhino population in Etosha is actively managed as part of the greater rhino management plan in Namibia. This entails the capture and translocations of individual rhinos to populate other areas in Namibia. This project is investigating the genetic associations of rhinos frequenting different waterholes. This is important information in deciding which rhinos should be translocated to minimize fighting and thus optimizing the translocation strategy. Samples from a total of 19 rhinos were collected from the Namutoni/sandveld area and this will be continued throughout Etosha.
 

To study the behavioural ecology, taxonomy and conservation of the black mongoose in large conservation areas, including Etosha National Park – a collaborative project between the EEI and the Department of Nature Conservation, Polytechnic of Namibia, Principal Investigator: P. Cunningham
The black mongoose is endemic to the granite outcrops north of the Spitzkopppe in Northern Namibia. This rare mongoose is studied to investigate its genetic status and provide recommendations to its future conservation.

Social organisation of a fission-fusion species, the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in Etosha National Park, Namibia – a collaborative project between the EEI and the Univeristy of Queensland, Australia, Principal Investigators: John and Kerryn Carter
The project studies the social organisation of a fission-fusion species, the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), in the Etosha National Park. In the seven months since the project began, 115 adult females with their offspring and 30 sub-adult females have been identified and catalogued. Data is gradually building regarding the strength of associations between individual females, and it is clear that there are stronger bonds between some pairs of giraffe than others.  The aims for the next year are to complete data collection through all seasons to study giraffe interactions with each other and whether this changes by season, to analyse their social network, and to understand what is important in female giraffe societies. Following this, it is hoped that DNA analysis of relatedness between females will increase understanding of the bonds formed, if any, between related females.

Immunoprophylaxis and molecular epidemiology of anthrax and the fate of Bacillus anthracis in living vectors and the environment of Namibia and South Africa – a collaborative project between the EEI and the University of Hohenheim, Germany, Principal Investigator:  Prof. Dr. Reinhard Böhm 
The project proposed encompasses (1) investigations of the molecular and environmental epidemiology of anthrax in South Africa and Namibia, (2) studies on the fate of Bacillus (B.) anthracis in environmental habitats and within insect vectors and (3) studies in laboratory rodents and goats to compare the immunogenicity, protective efficacy, and safety of recombinant peptide and DNA vaccine candidates with those of the live spore vaccine licensed in these countries. The project will address the genetic diversity of B. anthracis, circulating in livestock, wildlife and humans and in environmental habitats and the relationship between genotype and spatial, temporal and host distribution, using modern molecular fingerprinting techniques. The roles of water holes and other so-called “concentrator areas” and of free living amoebae in the epidemiology of anthrax in wild life parks and their surroundings will be investigated in microcosm and field studies. Vaccine protection trials will be carried out to test acellular bacterial and toxoid antigens, individually and in combination, and a plasmid DNA vaccine encoding various antigens. The feasibility of giving antibiotics at the same time as immunisation with acellular vaccines as a possible treatment schedule during an outbreak will be studied. Underpinning the science is the aim to support the academic and professional careers of young Namibian, South African and German scientists through exchange of personnel and technological skills within the framework of a multi-national academic network.

MONITORING PROGRAMMES IN ETOSHA

The following are a list of past and current monitoring programmes in the Etosha National Park: 

To study the age determination of Namibian Black Rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis bicornis) by means of assessing cementum lines in teeth at Etosha National Park
This is a collaborative study with Mr. P. Hitchins, who developed black rhinoceros ageing charts in KwaZulu Natal in the late 1970’s.  To date 120 rhino skulls have been photographed in Etosha National Park and categorized according to rough age classes based on Hitchins’ charts of 1978. Currently, Mr. Hitchins is in search of suitable equipment to cut the teeth in half so that the ages of the animals can be determined according to the cementum lines in the teeth.  The Etosha Ecological Institute at this stage does not have the equipment needed to cut teeth on large scale.    

Vegetation monitoring programme – Martin Kasona, Conservation Scientist and Ndapanda Kanime, Principal Conservation Scientist, EEI

 (content to come)

Monitoring rhino and roan in Kaross
RHINOCEROS
Monitoring of rhinos in Kaross commenced in February 2006.  Due to difficulties experienced with tracking in the rainy season the work was postponed to the dry season.  In June tracking was taken up again, only to find that the exceptionally dense grass cover made tracking impossible. During July and August the tracking had to be called off due to hunting and game capture operations. During September tracking efforts were intensified by spending ten consecutive tracking days in Kaross, and by including full moon monitoring in the efforts. Due to a fire that destroyed approximately 90% of grazing in Kaross tracking success during September was exceptionally high. Tracking commenced in October, but unpredictable winds limited success.  November will be the last month of tracking for 2006.  A summary report of all findings will be submitted at the end of the tracking season.

ROAN
During rhino monitoring operations in Kaross all roan sightings were recorded.  During September 2006 emergency capture of some species, including roan, took place in Kaross after the destructive veld fire.  A total of 52 roan antelopes could be captured. The animals were held in quarantine in Kaross before they were transported to Waterberg Plateau Park at the beginning of October.  The number of roan antelopes remaining in Kaross after the capture is uncertain at this stage.  It can be said though that the capture operator still saw single bulls and small bachelor herds while catching other species, and at least two small breeding herds were observed by DSS staff during the tracking in September once capture stopped. 

Wetland bird counts
These counts are conducted bi-annually as part of the African Water bird Census for Wetlands International. These counts are planned as simultaneously counts at all the important wetland sites in Southern Africa. The counts in Etosha are conducted to determine the status and long-term trends of migratory water birds at selected sites in the park and Lake Oponono.

The use of diffusive samplers for the sampling of atmospheric pollutants
This is a collaborative project between the EEI (WV) and the Atmospheric Chemistry Research Group, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, Potchefstroom, South Africa.

Daily rainfall, Field rain gauge monitoring and burning strategy
Daily rainfall monitoring is done for eight stations in the Etosha National Park. These stations are: Okaukuejo, Ombika, Halali, Namutoni, Von Lindequist gate, Nehale gate, Otjovasando and Galton gate. The field rain gauge monitoring was initiated in 1984 and is done annually during June/July to get the seasonal total rainfall of 184 rain gauges spread throughout the park. This data was one of the parameters required for the implementation of the Park’s prescribed burning program.

Fixed photo points
This monitoring program was started in 1984 at 448 sites through out the park, to determine medium and long-term trends of vegetation change in Etosha by means of visual records. The monitoring is repeated every five years and the last monitoring was completed in 2006. In collaboration with the Conservation Ecology Research Unit, University of Pretoria, an analysis of changes in the woody plant component from 1984 till 2001 was completed and published in a scientific journal.

Vulture ringing and monitoring
This monitoring was started during 2000 to monitor the dispersal of all vulture species in Etosha. Vultures in Namibia are under threat from poisoning, shooting and possibly habitat loss.  Etosha National Park (ENP) has the largest breeding population of African White-backed Vultures Gyps africanus in the country.  If the birds are resident within the park the population could remain self-sustaining but post-natal juveniles may disperse widely over vast distances and if these birds are subject to high mortality then the breeding population in the future could be at risk.

The objectives of the monitoring programme are to determine the population numbers, breeding success and to monitor juvenile dispersal.  Monitoring the dispersal of vultures has important consequences for the population dynamics of vultures in southern Africa.

Results: To date 341 vultures have been ringed in Etosha National Park, using the standard ringing methods and marking as prescribed by the Percy Fitzpatrick Institute (SAFring) and the Vulture Study Group.

Fixed photo points
To determine medium and long-term trends of change in Etosha by means of visual records, this is done every 5 years. 419 fixed points are monitored, throughout the Park since 1984.

Field rain gauge monitoring
Rainfall is one of several input parameters required for the implementation of the Park’s burning strategy. Total seasonal rainfall is derived from 168 field rain gauges distributed throughout the Park. Monitoring has been ongoing since 1984

African water bird census
This monitoring project is designed to determine the status and long-term trends in migratory waterbirds at selected sites in Etosha and Lake Oponono. Etosha pan is especially important as it is one of the 4 breeding sites in Africa for the endangered Lessor Flamingo.

Plains ungulate herd composition sex/age
Long and medium-term recruitment assessment of plains ungulates in conjunction with rainfall variability may identify potentially limiting factors on these populations. Monitoring ongoing since 1995 and at present being analysed.

Monitoring of SO2, NO2, NH3 AND O3 at remote sites
Principal investigors: JJ Pienaar, JJ Viljoen and JJ Martins, Atmospheric Chemistry Research Group, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa

Eskom initiated research into deposition studies of acidifying atmospheric species in the mid 80's to establish whether or not Eskom's activities could endanger sustainable development of natural resource. It was soon realised that wet deposition does not reflect the complete picture and gaseous and aerosol measurements were initiated in the early 1990's.  In 1994 Eskom officially joined the international DEBITS (DEposition of Biogeochemically Important Trace Species) programme of the IGBP (International Geosphere Biosphere Programme) by supporting a passive sampler network at four remote sites in southern Africa.  In doing so, Eskom can gain access to data, knowledge and expertise from DEBITS activities around the world and obtain accreditation of its own analytical laboratory by participating in annual WMO inter-calibration experiments.  It was subsequently also realised that a passive sampler network in southern Africa can contribute to the understanding of the long-range transport of emitted pollutants.

This report deals with the results from the passive sampler network for the period June 2000 to July 2002.  The results show that monthly concentrations of SO2 and NO2 on the Mpumalanga highveld are generally within acceptable limits (e.g. about four times lower than critical levels of eg, 30g.m-3 (~22.5 ppb) annual mean for SO2).  The relatively high ozone levels that are observed throughout southern Africa are probably due to the wide spread biomass burning activities in the region.  A strong seasonal trend is observed for NO2 and O3 that are mostly linked to seasonal emissions of NOx during spring.

Research links

To learn more about our collaborating partners and research in Etosha National Park, visit these websites: 

www.unam.na  
www.polytechnic.edu.na  
www.cnr.berkeley.edu/getzlab  
www.wildernesstrust.com